Michael Thacker

“Investigating the evolution of consciousness through integrated symbolic, archaeological, and psychological research.”

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  • The Value of Religion: An Evolutionary and Depth-Psychological Analysis

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    “God is dead, God remains dead, and we have killed him.” — Friedrich Nietzsche

    The Death of Religion

    Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the death of God was proclaimed by Nietzsche (Nietzsche, 1974/1882). Though many in modern society have perceived this proclamation as a triumph over religious dogma, Nietzsche perceived it as a means toward the replacement of religious dogma with that of rationality. Through this transfer of power, he foresaw tyranny through secular means and a society wherein meaning structures would have to be constructed by the individual.

    However, though the latter of these may appear liberating to those who oppose religion, it is here that the real enigma arises. For individuals in a rationalistic framework to attempt to construct whole value systems for themselves is but a futile attempt at an individualized religion predicated on arbitrary self-interest and ideas. Of course, this is precisely what secular adherents have accused religion of doing. Their perception is partial at best — and that is exactly what a rationalistic perceptual framework tends to generate (McGilchrist, 2019).

    Nevertheless, their partial perception possesses truth in that a select few within the confines of religious institutions have sought to control the many through their dogma. Fair enough. However, that is only a part of the whole context of events that led to the formation and establishment of religions — that is, the evolutionary and psychic components. Religion was and is an evolving system of perception that not only attempts to create meaning for humanity but also articulates the evolving human psyche. Thus, there is value in religion, even apart from its potential spiritual significance, that anyone who is intellectually curious should consider.

    The Evolution of Religion

    Symbolic thought has gradually evolved since humans last shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees approximately six million years ago. The mechanisms responsible for this orchestration appear to have begun with bipedalism, which helped orient human vision toward the vast horizon wherein novelty resided and exploration was necessary. As our ancestors developed into Australopithecus approximately four million years ago, subtle adaptations transpired. One of these adaptations included larger social groups that increased pressure on cooperation and communication as means of survival. Additionally, prototype tool use and the eating of cooked meat emerged during this time, leading to dramatic changes in early hominid physiology (Tattersall, 2013; Wrangham, 2009).

    These dramatic changes became apparent in the first members of the genus Homo, Homo erectus. The most significant change was the near doubling in size of the cranium from that of their predecessors, which allowed for increased precision and complexity in tool making, social dynamics, pair bonding, and hunting. Physiological changes involved an increase in average height and reduced gut size and body hair (Tattersall, 2013). Moreover, the feet of Homo erectus adapted to meet the needs of the ground, enabling greater stability and running, while hands no longer sought the branches of trees but stones to fashion into tools (Kivell, 2015).

    In addition to the increased complexity of the Homo psyche and physiology came the means of moving out of Africa and into the far reaches of the globe such as Europe, Asia, and Siberia. This movement outward, along with the reliance on hunting, increased the necessity of greater social complexity with an emphasis on mimetic behavior, wherein cooperation and collaboration were both efficient and effective for the survival of the species. Individuals began to mimic the behaviors of others, enabling a gradual progression in sophisticated tool making and hunting abilities. Over time, this gradual adaptive process accelerated exponentially, ultimately leading to more intelligent members of the genus Homo (Tattersall, 2013).

    As Neanderthals arrived on the scene around 400,000 years ago, and then migrated into Europe 200,000 years ago, sophistication in tool making skills, hunting, and social dynamics increased yet again. This increase was predominantly due to another leap in cognitive capacity, from the 880cc of Homo erectus to the 1400cc found in Neanderthals (Tattersall, 2013). Among these sophistications exhibited by Neanderthals is evidence for symbolic thought and ritualistic behavior found in burials and body paintings (Nielsen et al., 2020). It was with this member of the genus Homo that faint glimmers of religion first emerged.

    However, it was not until the arrival of Homo sapiens approximately 200,000 years ago that the hominid psyche experienced a dramatic transformation. It was here that hominids progressed from mimetic perception to semantic perception. No longer did one simply observe and mimic others’ behavior, but rather the individual began to experience and interpret reality for themselves. Existence took on a different meaning that gradually instigated an articulation of this newfound perceptual ability (Donald, 1991; Tattersall, 2013).

    One such exemplifier was the use of language, which appears possible only in humans, as their predecessors did not possess the necessary locale of the larynx to properly produce language. This is not to say that they did not communicate, as that is most likely the case. However, it is to say that they did not possess the same communicative abilities that enabled concise articulation as Homo sapiens did (Donald, 1991). The difference between Homo sapiens and their predecessors’ articulatory abilities became most evident with the advent of artwork, with the earliest evidence found in Indonesia dating back 68,000 years ago (Oktaviana et al., 2026). Though the real immersive experience of symbolic expression did not emerge until 40,000 years ago, thousands of miles away in Europe (Tattersall, 2013).

    At the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic era (40,000 years ago), human creativity experienced an explosion wherein artwork not only increased exponentially in quantity, but in quality as well. Magnificent depictions of various animals, symbols, and geometric shapes can be found either painted or etched onto cave walls throughout modern-day Europe. Much of the artwork appears to be narrative in form, depicting hunting scenes, rituals, or other events of significance. In addition, most of these narrated depictions are predominantly found deep within the cave’s interior, thus suggesting a ritualistic significance to these artworks (Tattersall, 2013).

    These were not simple entrance cave-dwelling locations. On the contrary, they were several hundred feet, sometimes even a kilometer or more, through interior cave obstacles. Moreover, many of the people at this time dwelled in constructed huts and not caves, as is commonly depicted in classic science fiction films and cartoons. Many researchers have interpreted at least some decorated Paleolithic caves as sanctuaries, and some archaeological studies now support their use as deep ritual spaces rather than ordinary dwelling areas (Barzilai et al., 2024; Garate et al., 2020; Medina-Alcaide et al., 2021).

    These early religions took on an anthropomorphic and animistic approach to perceiving the world. Prominent anthropomorphic figures included the vulture, serpent, and owl. Female Venus figurines, too, were a part of the religious dynamic. Symbols involved were spirals, discs, and wavy lines. All of these, in connection with their later renditions found throughout written ancient religions, symbolized a death-and-rebirth motif. This motif was common predominantly due to the experience of prehistoric human existence, wherein hunting and fishing were heavily relied upon for survival. Following the acquisition of food during spring and summer months, bones of the animals would often be memorialized in the winter in hopes that a regenerative process would transpire, one that would provide more sustenance again in the subsequent spring (Gimbutas, 1991).

    Emerging out of the last ice age and the Younger Dryas event (12,000 years ago) into the Neolithic era, humans evolved these preceding concepts alongside their newfound abilities in construction, agriculture, and herding. Beginning at Göbekli Tepe, no longer was the female goddess of Venus isolated; rather, now she was accompanied by ambiguous male figures and the male anthropomorphic equivalent, the bull (Gimbutas, 1991; Schmidt, 2010). Religion had dichotomized itself, and with greater precision. Artwork took on a new form at GöbekliTepe and surrounding sites with erected statues and pillars that symbolized these deities. Not only was a new form evident, but greater emphasis on precision and accuracy of detail emerged as well (Schmidt, 2010).

    Progressing into the late Neolithic period (7,500 years ago), the precision and accuracy of detail seeped over into architectural designs. No longer did people reside in nomadic circular huts, but rather they settled into rectangular and more permanent dwellings. Precision was emphasized in the clear-cut rectangular designs where, for the first time, ninety-degree angles were used. In addition, builders used sophisticated and elaborate designs for community living wherein roadways, irrigation, and walls were constructed for efficiency. These evolved features of architecture continued to progress immensely throughout the course of the subsequent millennia with the emergence of civilization in both Sumer and Egypt around 6,000 years ago through modern times (Cauvin, 2000).

    The predominant underlying driver for the innovative progress of humanity was the meaning and value structures that orient people toward such endeavors. At first glance, it would appear the reason would be because of gods that would devastate humanity if it erred from doing so. However, the fundamental reason is more profound than that explanation. For all intents and purposes, it would appear that religion was fundamental to human existence in that society, culture, and the individual within were all one with the local belief system. This would be due to the fact that religious ideas were not arbitrary in nature but rather were a byproduct of an evolving human psyche and perceptual system (Neumann, 1954).

    Religion as a Collective Attempt to Unify the Psyche

    A lack of arbitrariness in religions is evident in the fact that most religions were not constructed by a small subset of the population at any given time. On the contrary, most religions are the byproduct of aggregated works and thoughts from a variety of peoples over an extensive span of time. This is especially evident with the emergence of systematic writing in Sumer and Egypt 5,000 years ago. With the variety of texts supplied to modern-day scholars, one can observe the pattern of religious ideas evolving throughout time. Not only is this evidence within a given culture such as ancient Sumer, but the evolving influence of these ideas becomes apparent in other, later cultures such as Babylon, Greece, and the Hebrew Bible and Christianity (Eliade, 1981).

    In the early forms of religion, the divine feminine reigned alongside an animistic spirit. Emerging out of the Paleolithic period and into the Neolithic period, the divine feminine acquired a male counterpart that provided balance in the narrative value structure of humanity (Gimbutas, 1991). At the time of the formation of civilization in Sumer and Egypt, written records were formed that elaborated on the narratives of old while at the same time incorporating ample novel characters into the plot. These novel characters were an indication of the level of sophistication and intelligence that humanity had achieved at that time. Furthermore, these novel characters symbolized, aside from their spiritual significance, various personas or archetypes that acted on the human psyche (Eliade, 1981; Neumann, 1954).

    For the first time, the human collective took oral traditions and wrote them down while combining them with novel aspirations. However, this was not the work of one or a few at one period of time, but rather the aggregation of collective tradition channeled through scribes over the course of several hundred years in two separate locations. This trend continued even after societies were overthrown, such as the Assyrians overthrowing the Sumerians, and then the Babylonians overthrowing the Assyrians. Yet, through conquest, the narratives remained relatively similar, with only the gods assuming different names. The changes to the narratives that did occur were actually more sophisticated changes that represented an evolving human psyche rather than pure manipulation (Eliade, 1981; Neumann, 1954).

    These narratives continued to evolve as surrounding cultures acquired the knowledge, such as Zoroastrianism at the beginning of the first millennium BC. Here, the narrative reduced the number of gods into a single deity, which was reflective of an evolving ideal generated in the evolving consciousness of humanity. It was an attempt to unify the human psyche into an ideal form that could be comprehended and exemplified. This advanced attempt influenced the Israelites to follow the same pattern, however, in a more sophisticated manner with extensive and elaborate literature on the topic. Again, the literature the Israelites put together was authored by multiple authors over a span of several hundred years, thus revealing an evolving trend in attempting to apprehend the world and the human psyche (Eliade, 1985; Neumann, 1954).

    At the turn of the first century AD, Christianity took the concept of the ideal to another level by personifying it through the person of Jesus Christ. It is here that the narrative not only provided humanity with a source of knowledge about the world and human purpose, but rather proclaimed that everyone was endowed with value that must be attended to. This value, of course, was the human psyche. Its declaration was that humanity could unify and transform itself by contending with the demons within through acquiring the knowledge of God, which is equivalent to the knowledge of oneself and the world around them. Through extensive contemplation and study, one could show themselves “approved” before the glory of God, which then transforms them into a whole and unified individual (Jung, 1956).

    Restoring Balance in the Progress of the Human Psyche

    As time progressed, humanity developed its ideas into more philosophical inquiry, yet while still encapsulated in a religious framework. It was not until the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment periods of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries that humanity began to separate from its religious predecessors. This occurrence, of course, is where one is brought back to Nietzsche’s proclamation of the death of God. From then on, for many, especially in the realm of academia, religion has gradually faded into the background as superstitious nonsense. However, to separate from religion entirely without acknowledging what value lies within, especially in an evolutionary manner, humanity is destined to neglect where it came from, which increases the potential of not understanding where to go. The narrative value structure of religion has helped evolve and guide human thought and behavior since its inception, and to discard it so easily reveals a lack of awareness and immaturity on the part of modern-day humanity.

    It appears that what has occurred is a similar fate to what many of the ancients endured before developing to a point of psychic actualization, and that is the adherence to literalism. For the ancients, the concepts of sacrifice, God, angels, demons, miracles, and the like, though potentially real in one form or another, were taken literally. Thus, instead of making the proper psychological and physical sacrifices necessary to achieve a particular goal, they believed that this power lay within the realm of sacrificing animals to a god. As silly and superstitious as many may believe this to be, modern humanity is not far off, albeit in an opposing direction. Now, instead of desiring to comprehend the utility and evolving nature of religious thought, modern humanity perceives the text strictly in a literal manner, albeit through a rationalistic perspective. This may be somewhat distinct from the ancient mythological perception of religious ideas; however, modern humanity still perceives these ideas in a fundamentally literal form, though in a slightly different manner. Only through humility can modern humanity reclaim religious thought in a sophisticated manner that will complement scientific inquiry and help restore balance to the progress of the human psyche.

    References

    Barzilai, O., Marder, O., Tejero, J.-M., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Weissbrod, L., Rebollo, N. R., Aldeias, V., Miller, C. E., Zilberman, U., Agam, A., Yeshurun, R., Hershkovitz, I., & Barkai, R. (2024). Early human collective practices and symbolism in the Early Upper Paleolithic of Southwest Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(50), e2404632121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2404632121 

    Cauvin, J. (2000). The birth of the gods and the origins of agriculture (T. Watkins, Trans.). Cambridge University Press.

    Donald, M. (1991). Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Harvard University Press.

    Eliade, M. (1981). A history of religious ideas (Vol. 1, W. R. Trask, Trans.): From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. University of Chicago Press.

    Eliade, M. (1985). A history of religious ideas (Vol. 3): From Muhammad to the Age of Reforms. University of Chicago Press.

    Gárate, D., Rivero, O., Ruiz-Redondo, A., Rios-Garaizar, J., Intxaurbe, I., Salazar, S., Aranburu, A., Bourrillon, R., & Petraglia, M. D. (2020). The cave of Atxurra: A new major Magdalenian rock art sanctuary in northern Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 29, 102164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102164 

    Gimbutas, M. (1991). The civilization of the goddess: The world of Old Europe. HarperSanFrancisco.

    Jung, C. G. (1956). Symbols of transformation (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton University Press.

    Kivell, T. L. (2015). Evidence in hand: Recent discoveries and the early evolution of human manual manipulation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1682), 20150105. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0105 

    McGilchrist, I. (2019). The master and his emissary: The divided brain and the making of the Western world (2nd ed.). Yale University Press.

    Medina-Alcaide, M. Á., Gárate, D., Intxaurbe, I., Sanchidrián, J. L., Rivero, O., Ferrier, C., Mesa, M. D., Pereña, J., & Líbano, I. (2021). The conquest of the dark spaces: An experimental approach to lighting systems in Paleolithic caves. PLOS ONE, 16(6), e0250497. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250497 

    Neumann, E. (1954). The origins and history of consciousness (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton University Press.

    Nielsen, M., Langley, M. C., Shipton, C., & Kapitány, R. (2020). Homo neanderthalensis and the evolutionary origins of ritual in human society. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 375(1805), 20190424. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0424 

    Nietzsche, F. (1974). The gay science (W. Kaufmann, Trans.). Vintage Books. (Original work published 1882)

    Oktaviana, A. A., Joannes-Boyau, R., Hakim, B., Burhan, B., Sardi, R., Adhityatama, S., Jalandoni, A., Hamrullah, Sumantri, I., Tang, M., Lebe, R., Iswadi, Ilyas, I., Abbas, A., Jusdi, A., Duli, A., Hidayatullah, N. A., Nurmin, Sindara, S. H., … Aubert, M. (2026). Rock art from at least 67,800 years ago in Sulawesi. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09968-y 

    Schmidt, K. (2010). Göbekli Tepe — the Stone Age sanctuaries: New results of ongoing excavations with a special focus on sculptures and high reliefs. Documenta Praehistorica, 37, 239 — 256.

    Tattersall, I. (2013). Masters of the planet: The search for our human origins. St. Martin’s Griffin.

    Wrangham, R. (2009). Catching fire: How cooking made us human. Basic Books.

  • The Cyclical Process of Differentiated Wholeness

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    Development is a process composed of both partial and contextual elements. Each progressive step toward a conceptualized goal belongs to a longer sequence of integrative movements that together constitute a whole. These parts must be retained within consciousness if the individual is to comprehend the developmental process as such.

    In Jungian terms, development often unfolds through dichotomous movements of descent and ascent within the life of the ego. The ego is the center of identity and awareness in the individual, while the Self is the larger totality within which the ego is situated. Beneath these structures lies the unconscious, both personal and collective. Development requires the integration of unconscious material into the ego, increasing both the precision of identity and the individual’s comprehension of the external world.

    Times of difficulty often symbolize periods in which one descends into the unconscious. Yet it is precisely here that valuable material lies hidden. During such periods, the individual is called to encounter, comprehend, and integrate novel contents arising both from within and beyond the unconscious itself. Inner contents are often approached through retrospective and prospective contemplation, while outer contents are encountered through novel experience — study, travel, dialogue, or other forms of contact with what is unfamiliar. Through this process, the ego assimilates unconscious material and is gradually transformed into a more differentiated and integrated center of identity.

    From there, the ego ascends out of the abyss of the unconscious and into a moment of differentiated wholeness. Yet this wholeness is never final. It is a temporary elevation, one that will eventually give way to another encounter with unconscious material in one form or another. Nevertheless, it is through these cyclical periods of descent, integration, and ascent that the individual gradually becomes more whole and more differentiated. Over time, these developmental cycles form a larger sequence of contextual patterns of wholeness. Consequently, precision of identity emerges alongside an increased comprehension of reality itself.

  • Cognitive Heuristics vs Integration: Oscillating Between the Cave and Exploration

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    Cognitive heuristics (shortcuts/bias) are an adaptive quality of efficiency. Each time one interacts with their environment, they are predisposed to rely on them in an effort to conserve psychological resources. Though these innate tendencies provide a means of efficiency and stability, they also reduce one’s ability to acquire and integrate novel information.

    Both are essential adaptations; however, the former is an adaptive process of conservation, while the latter is progressive. The former would, at least in part, be a necessary function of everyday being. To reduce the use of cognitive heuristics while increasing acquisition and integration in all facets of everyday life would simply overwhelm the individual to a point of collapse and regression. Contrarily, if one simply relies on cognitive heuristics while never engaging in the process of acquisition and integration, stagnation results.

    Rather, the ideal approach is the adaptable utility of both processes wherein either are utilized in their proper context. Cognitive heuristics are utilized in most mundane tasks for increased efficiency and reduced complexity, while acquisition and integration are utilized at particular moments of encounter with novelty and ambiguity that aid in comprehension, accommodation, and transformation.

    Thus, an oscillating process between efficiency and integration provides a more balanced and wholesome approach to being — one that both preserves and transforms the individual. In this sense, one might think of the process as the oscillation between the cave and exploration: the cave as that which shelters, stabilizes, and conserves, and exploration as that which exposes one to novelty, ambiguity, and the possibility of development. Both are necessary. One preserves the individual from dissolution in the overwhelming complexity of life, while the other prevents him from becoming enclosed within rigidity and stagnation.

  • Attention in a Digital World: Why Integration Now Requires Discipline

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    “Individuation and the Challenge of Integration in the Age of Distraction”

    Human cognition is a complex mechanism by which one is able to develop conceptual systems that provide coherent perceptions of the world around them. It is within these conceptual systems that meaning structures develop throughout life, acquired through our interactions with the world. It is a bidirectional process wherein we use our current systems to navigate the world, while at the same time updating those systems with novel information we encounter along our way. Additionally, these systems are not only used in navigating physical reality but conceptual spaces such as books and lectures.

    As we encounter such novelty, we process it through our current perceptual models that filter information that is relevant to our preexisting structure. Useful information is assimilated into that structure while contradictory or ambiguous information is either manipulated to fit one’s preexisting structure or ignored. Only through practice can one develop skills to acknowledge and then critically think on that information to see how to accommodate it into their current structure. This is often accomplished by reconfiguring the structure to fit the information which, depending on the degree of reconfiguration, reorganizes one’s perception in a dramatic manner.

    The process of accommodation is an adaptive process, and it appears to be the means that helped the human species excel so rapidly in our evolutionary history. Since the emergence of Homo sapiens some 200,000 years ago, we have adapted to all types of environments, invented language and art, developed religious ideas, constructed monumental structures of symbolic significance (Tattersall, 2013; Donald, 1991).

    All these adaptable achievements have significantly improved our survivability as a species, and they have led us to the convenient society that we currently inhabit. Despite these adaptable achievements, modernity has provided conveniences that appear to have limited our adaptability trait. We have now become more reliant on the achievements of humanity rather than on the intrinsic drive that helped lead us to such achievements.

    It is here that much of humanity has traded innovation and discovery for novelty seeking and satiation. Consequently, a fragmentation of the psyche has plagued many as is evidenced in attentional diffusion, identity polarization, and reduced ambiguity tolerance, while a narrowing of perceptual value that prioritizes stimulation emerges as the meaning-making medium. Thus, modern digital environments disproportionately reward rapid salience detection over sustained integrative reasoning, potentially complicating the process of individuation and adaptive meaning-making.

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    Into the Depths of the Unconscious

    Regarding the significance of accommodation of novel information, Jung went further with this concept into the depths of the unconscious. He believed that an encounter with novel information was not just strictly a need for perceptual reconfiguration through accommodation, but rather it was something more profound than that. Wrestling with novel information was a journey into both the individual and collective unconscious wherein the individual contends with concealed and unknown parts of the Self. In mythology, this is symbolized as the hero’s descent into the unknown where they confront and overcome the dragon of chaos in hopes of transforming both themselves and society and restoring order in due process (Jung, 1968).

    Jung thought this process to be imperative for the individual to pursue throughout their life, especially as they matured into old age. In fact, he believed individuation to be the very essence of maturation. It is a cyclical endeavor where an individual encounters novel information, contends, integrates, and reconfigures their psyche, which is then pursued once again until unification is achieved. As one contends with new information/unconscious forces, over time they gradually unify their psyche into a coherent and stable structure, thus mimicking, to a degree, the process of human evolution itself on a micro scale. Consequently, if one does not participate in such experiences, fragmentation and confusion results (Jung, 1968).

    Modernity and Meaning-Making:

    Modernity presents an issue for many regarding the process of individuation as it presents an overwhelming amount of information while also providing too many distractions. Information overload — both quantity and quality — exhaust the process of individuation as the information becomes a dragon too large and diverse to contend with. Similarly, the vast amounts of distractions in the forms of smart phones, social media, gaming, and other forms of entertainment, beckon for one’s attention and thus diversify and reduce cognitive resources (Korte, 2020).

    With the induction of smart phones with their portability and instant access to a wealth of information and entertainment, habitual patterns of cognitive engagement may be shifting (Korte, 2020). Social media and their algorithmic configurations that develop in accordance with an individual’s salience and emotional vulnerabilities have been associated with reduced sustained engagement in effortful material in some individuals (Turel et al., 2014; Montag & Diefenbach, 2018). Instant access to content that is stimulating and novel and requires short attentional effort has further compounded the issue (Alter, 2017; Leroy, 2009; Ophir et al., 2009). What were designed to be utilized as tools to help stimulate the curiosity of the human mind has now become the pacifier of the weary (Orben & Przybylski, 2019). Convenience and entertainment have blunted the intrinsic drive of innovation and curiosity.

    Sustained attention is essential in the engagement and completion of any complex and meaningful task. However, technology has significantly reduced our ability to sustain attention by increasing attentional volatility through persistent task switching common among avid smart phone users (Leroy, 2009; Castelo et al., 2023). Skowronek et al. (2023) have found that even the mere presence of a smart phone can reduce attentional performance.

    Comparatively, reading skills have also experienced a significant decline since the inception of smart phones. Wolf (2018) found a reduction in inferential processing when using digital platforms compared to tangible prints for reading. Similarly, Delgado et al. (2018) conducted a meta-analysis on the effects of digital vs printed reading on contextual comprehension and found print outperformed digital. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2022) revealed a decline in reading performance across several industrialized nations. Good reading skills are essential in acquiring and contending with novel information, especially as the complexity of what is being read increases.

    Both attention and reading skills are essential in attending to and acquiring novel information that can be evaluated, contended with, and integrated. Thus, without such attributes and skills, the process of individuation becomes exceptionally difficult. Additionally, the amount and diversity of information that has resulted from increased internet access and globalization has only compounded this issue (Alsaleh, 2024). The modern person is thus overwhelmed and overextended to the point of exhaustion.

    Unifying Attention and Developing Reading Skills

    To properly attend to anything in life, one must set their complete attention to whatever it maybe they are desiring to attend to. By narrowing down on the substance or experience at hand, the vital information contained within can then emerge. Jung revealed this as vital concealed information as the “treasure” that was protected by the dragon depicted in classic mythology and fairy tales. Only by attending to the treasure can one retrieve what is essential for integration. For example, when Moses in the story of Exodus encounters the burning bush, he turns his attention to it and it was this attention that allowed for the disclosure of vital information to manifest out of it. In cognitive terms, sustained attention enables the extraction of latent complexity from stimuli that would otherwise remain perceptually inert.

    Similarly, by developing good reading skills by engaging with books that pushes one’s current skill level, that development can occur. Not only does reading development transpire, but concealed information hidden within the complexity emerges during engagement that can help develop the Self as well. This, of course, often requires disciplined and focused reading that may also necessitate pauses for contemplation on particular passages or retreat to a dictionary for improved comprehension of difficult words. However, it is here that one’s comprehension of both the Self and reality can improve that leads to wholeness and greater well-being.

    Developed and Unified Self in the Modern World

    Modernity is not in and of itself a root cause of the fragmentation of attention or decline in reading ability, nor is it the impediment of the individual drive towards innovation and transformation. Rather, the fundamental issue is both the collective’s and individual’s propensity to allow the commodities of modernity to overwhelm and suppress the intrinsic human capacity for adaptive integration. What is needed is not a rejection of modernity but a regulation of one’s own attention and resource allocation. How and where, one directs one’s attention and resources will determine what resourceful treasures they may discover.

    By reducing unnecessary distractions while narrowing one’s attention on the essentials, they can then begin to increase efficiency in everyday life. However, even more importantly, they can then devote their extra time that was previously invested in a variety of overwhelming stimulus into investigating the more profound parts of reality and their Self. Investing resources and attention towards challenging information where one can wrestle with the unconscious elements of both the collective past and the Self. Therein is where concealed “truths” can be made manifest that will allow for integration and reconfiguration. It is this reconfiguration that transforms what was unknown into the useful known that is unified, innovative, and more aware than before.

    References:

    Alsaleh, A. The impact of technological advancement on culture and society. Science Report, 14, 32140 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-83995-z

    Alter, A. (2017). Irresistible: The rise of addictive technology and the business of keeping us hooked. Penguin Press.

    Castelo, N., Bos, M. W., & Lehmann, D. R. (2023). Task switching and attentional fragmentation in digital environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 152(4), 1023 — 1041. 

    Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R., & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don’t throw away your printed books: A meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research Review, 25, 23 — 38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003 

    Donald, M. (1991). Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Harvard University Press.

    Jung, C. G. (1968). The archetypes and the collective unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1959)

    Korte, M. (2020). The impact of the digital revolution on human brain and behavior: Where do we stand? Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(2), 101 — 111. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.2/mkorte 

    Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168 — 181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.04.002 

    Montag, C., & Diefenbach, S. (2018). Towards Homo digitalis: Important research issues for psychology and the neurosciences at the dawn of the Internet of Things and the digital society. Sustainability, 10(2), 415. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10020415 

    Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(37), 15583 — 15587. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903620106 

    Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3, 173 — 182. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1 

    Skowronek, J., Seifert, A., & Keller, S. (2023). The mere presence of smartphones reduces cognitive performance: A meta-analytic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 139, 107537. 

    Tattersall, I. (2013). Masters of the planet: The search for our human origins. Palgrave Macmillan.

    Turel, O., He, Q., Xue, G., Xiao, L., & Bechara, A. (2014). Examination of neural systems sub-serving Facebook “addiction.” Psychological Reports, 115(3), 675 — 695. https://doi.org/10.2466/18.PR0.115c31z8 

    Wolf, M. (2018). Reader, come home: The reading brain in a digital world. Harper.

  • Oscillatory Epistemology: An Examination of Ideological Possession

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    This video examines ideological possession through the lens of epistemic structure, cognitive schema formation, and developmental psychology. Rather than framing polarization as merely political or moral disagreement, I analyze it as a structural rigidity within the architecture of belief formation itself.

    Drawing from depth psychology (Jung, Neumann), hemispheric lateralization theory (McGilchrist), evolutionary anthropology, and philosophy of knowledge, I argue that both religious fundamentalism and strict naturalistic materialism can exhibit identical epistemic closure despite divergent axioms. The issue, therefore, is not the content of belief, but the rigidity of the structure through which belief is processed and defended.

    Using the problem of suffering as a case study, I explore how metaphysical claims are frequently critiqued outside of their own narrative and ontological frameworks, resulting in cross-structural misinterpretation rather than substantive engagement.

    In response, I propose what I term oscillatory epistemology — a disciplined movement between stability and revision, tradition and progress, acquisition and integration. This model does not advocate relativism. Rather, it argues that coherent development requires grounded axioms alongside interpretive adaptability.

    The capacity to revise interpretive schemas without dissolving foundational structure may be essential for both individual psychological integration and collective civilizational stability.

    The aim of this discussion is not to defend a single ideological position, but to examine the mechanisms by which positions become rigid — and to propose a developmental pathway beyond that rigidity.

  • Resolving the Political Divide: An Evolutionary — Psychological Path to Coherence

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    “Understanding left — right polarization as a developmental problem, not a partisan one”

    Political upheaval has become a part of everyday life in America with news stations broadcasting radicalized events such as ICE deportations and protests. Social media, too, is a digital space wherein one can witness the vile exchanges between adherents of the right and left. Both sides of the political spectrum claim to reside on the correct end while exalting a sense of moral superiority.

    This phenomenon is nothing new to humanity with similar divides being witnessed throughout civilized society since its emergence approximately 5,000 years ago in both Sumer and Egypt. Whether it be the collapse of Rome during the 4th century AD or the English Civil War of the 17th century — all portray a similar fundamental issue and that is the divide.

    Over the past several decades, the divide between left and right political issues have gradually enlarged. This increasing gap between the two parties has now reached a point of incommunicative salience and aggressive defensiveness. Both sides have pressured each other into reclusive reactive aggression that seeks to protect their ideological framework at all costs.

    Of course, these frameworks did not develop overnight nor were they pieced together in recent decades. These systems of thought and perception are a result of millions of years of human evolution — and this evolutionary perceptual and contemplative construct has only increased in both vigor and precision since the Neolithic Revolution some 12,000 years ago.

    What America is witnessing is a divide of human consciousness; it is a fragmentation of the collective human psyche. With that said, it is this evolutionary trend that could determine the future evolutionary pathway of humanity. The fundamental issue appears to be that both sides are both right and wrong in what they are articulating — and the answer is not found on either side but rather a unique synthesis of the two.

    The Evolution of Coherence

    Six million years have passed since humans last shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees. It was at this divergence that the same set of species evolved in two different ways that resulted in two distinct forms of existence. The chimpanzees remained forest dwellers with little to no cultural and cognitive development occurring, while humans went on to evolve into a more symbolically and culturally complex species that have built megastructures and effectively shaped the world (Tattersall, 2013).

    This distinction could perhaps be due to mere chance; however, the universe appears to be anything but mere chance. Rather, what occurred must have been — at least in the more primitive sense — a deliberate attempt at coherence that led to exploration outside of the trees. Of course, this “deliberate attempt” was not the same as conscious choice towards coherence, but rather an attempt at survival nested in a bold sense of curiosity.

    Around four million years ago, we were called Australopithecines, and our home and food were found in both the forest and savannah. However, something else occurred at that time that was quite remarkable, something different than our predecessors or our relatives the chimpanzees — we began to live in large communities wherein cooperation became imperative for survival (Donald, 1991).

    At approximately the same time around 3.4 million years ago, Australopithecus began to use stone tools to butcher meat which gradually helped us develop enhanced eye-hand coordination skills (Kunze et al., 2024; McPherron et al., 2010). Over time, this novel skill acquisition morphed our hands in a manner that increased our manipulative abilities. This adaptive feature not only helped us better manipulate objects but may have also increased our ability to analyze the material being manipulated (Kivell, 2015).

    The Increased newfound ability to analyze becomes even more apparent with the invention of more sophisticated tools found among later Homo erectus remains. These tools required precision and planning to form properly. If the material was faulty or fashioned incorrectly, the tool would be useless, which is of crucial importance when surviving in the wilderness (Tattersall, 2013).

    Stone tool use in conjunction with bipedalism, fire use and cooking, and increased group size and cooperation, all helped our species evolve into the next genus Homo. With the emergence of Homo erectus around 2 million years ago, came larger brains and taller, more human-like anatomy. It is with this dramatic shift that we begin to witness a gradual development of culture that becomes increasingly evident with each new subspecies. Moreover, Homo erectus were the first to hunt for their food, construct sophisticated tools and weapons, and migrate out of Africa into far off regions such as Asia (Tattersall, 2013; Wrangham, 2009).

    Each subsequent species of Homo progressively evolved into more sophisticated creatures. Both Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthalensis were highly adaptable while being the first to dominate the European continent. They, too, furthered the advancement of tools and weaponry that increased precision and efficiency while hunting and construction. These species were also able to successfully hunt extraordinarily large prehistoric animals such as the wholly mammoth and saber tooth tiger. Their culture became quite advanced compared to their predecessors with the invention of ovens, construction of living quarters, and the first to use colorful ochre that may have had an aesthetic value (Tattersall, 2013).

    However, despite all the progress that previous species of Homo were able to accomplish, none even remotely compared to the arrival of Homo sapiens 200,000 years ago. In this new subspecies, we find an explosion of innovation that both gradually and rapidly develops, becoming abundantly apparent beginning around 50,000 years ago. Homo sapiens overwhelmingly advanced tools, weaponry, art and territory. Religion, too, began to take precedence in the form of carvings within cave walls and female fertility figurines that appeared to have symbolized death and rebirth (Gimbutas, 1991).

    At the beginning of the Neolithic period 12,000 years ago, Homo sapiens experienced another shift of innovation that has only accelerated even to this day. It was at this time that the emergence of agriculture — followed by the later domestication of wild animals — transpired. At the same time, cultural complexity expanded with religious ideas and aesthetics becoming more prominent than before. Megalithic structures such as Gobekli Tepe emerged partly as a consequence of this religious axiom (Cauvin, 2000; Schmidt, 2010).

    The goddess of fertility still held sway over the collective, although she developed more intricate and precise features, and she was now accompanied by a bull symbolized in the form of the bucranium. This new mythic entity has been identified as the first male deity that would later around 7,000 years ago develop into an actual male human figure (Cauvin, 2000).

    These religious ideas provided collective coherence as they sought to explain the variety of complexities found throughout nature. Consequently, and quite unknowningly to the collective creators of such ideas, psychological components were embedded within these religious narratives that provided insight into the both the workings of the psyche and the evolution of consciousness. Of course, this did not become apparent until later after the emergence of civilization their systems of writing. These novel systems provided the developers of religion to articulate the ideas in precise and intricate detail.

    As these religious narratives developed throughout the centuries, elements within began to gradually attain coherence and unification. First evidenced in Egypt in the story of the death and resurrection of Osiris and his amalgamation with his son Horus and then witnessed a little later in the Babylonian myth of Marduk and his defeat of Tiamat that enabled him to unify the gods and create order (Eliade, 1981; Neumann, 1954). The implicit psychological fundamental axiom presented here is the unification of the psyche and the increased coherence of consciousness.

    It was in the first millennium BC in both Mesopotamia and Israel that we witness the beginning of a novel idea emerge within religious thought — that is the full articulation of a unified deity. Both Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism and Yahweh in Judaism presented a single deity that was Omnipotent and Omniscience. There were no other gods to be compared to them, and a matter of fact there were no gods at all besides them. All other deities were simply created entities by the supreme gods themselves (Eliade, 1981).

    Aside from their religious connotation, the psychological significance of this development is of crucial importance. For the first time, humanity had unified the various forces of both nature and the psyche into a unified and coherent system of thought. This phenomenon was further developed with the emergence of Christianity during the first century AD. In this religious narrative, humanity manifested this unified and coherent concept of divinity into human form. Additionally, they articulated the narrative in a manner that represented the fundamental essence of human existence. Through the death and rebirth of the human psyche, an individual can develop into an increasingly coherent and unified entity that appears messianic. Across these developments, a consistent pattern emerges: increasing differentiation of perception and behavior followed by the necessity of symbolic reintegration to maintain coherence.

    The Fragmentation of Modernity

    From prehistoric times where the divine was symbolized through the fertility goddess, to the addition of a male cohort in Neolithic times, to the written narratives of ancient Egypt and Babylon, all of which are developing articulated components of the psyche. The plethora of deities found in the latter of these narratives were later developed into unified and coherent deities. However, it was not until the time of Christ that we witness the full manifestation of a coherent and unified structure emerge into human form that was then placed within a narrative that represented both human existence and psychic transformation.

    These foundational narratives of the collective helped provide meaning and stability to society, at least as much was possible with what technology and level of intelligence was available at the time. It was not until the time of the enlightenment that these fundamental axioms began to disintegrate under the influence of scientific discovery. Gradually, society transformed itself through innovation and scientific theory. Though these were beneficial in many regards, as well as necessary evolutionary components that resulted from the consequence of the development of human consciousness, the complete dismantling influence of religion does not come without its own consequences.

    As modernity grew in its influential prowess with technology and its consequential convenience, along with the spread of global and rationalistic ideals, so too did the fragmentation of the collective order and thus the human psyche. The latter of these is evident in the dramatic increase in mental illnesses of all sorts affecting the global populace, but especially in western society where this modern influence has been the most impactful. Additionally, the political front has now become the fundamental axiomatic structure of many in America that orients their perception and behavior, even among those that claim to be strong adherents to religious beliefs.

    With that said, this is not to say that modernity is somehow inherently evil or that religion is the answer per se. However, if humanity persists in this direction, further fragmentation along with a potential collapse is highly plausible. Thus, something must be done to impede the progress of social decay that is not found in solely one political party as many hope, whether that be conservative or liberal. What modernity reveals, then, is not the failure of progress itself, but the consequences of differentiation without sufficient mechanisms for psychological and symbolic reintegration.

    Oscillatory Unification

    One fundamental issue regarding the dialogue between conservatives and liberals is not simply a mismatch of language, but rather an incongruence of fundamental axiomatic presuppositions. Conservatives collectively conceptualize the ideal as a traditional mechanism that preserves order, even if that order risks stagnation or tyranny. In contrast, liberals collectively conceptualize the ideal as a mechanism of progress that helps transform the order, even if the resulting progress is disorganized. Unfortunately, both sides lead to polar opposite solutions of extreme proportions — the right towards stagnation while the left towards chaotic dissemination.

    American society has clung unto a political identity that is nested in a dichotic mode of perception, thus gradually pushing either side further away through right and left rhetoric. This has fueled the polarization we see today, and the radicalized attachment to these opposite ideals has only increased the damage. Identification with the political parties and their leaders is just as dangerous as stark adherents of radical religious organizations.

    For society to regain coherence and unification, the process must begin at the individual level. With that said, the alleviation of political identification is found in adaptability. Just as modern human success was the result of millions of years of adaptation, so too must the individual develop their own sense of independent identity through successful adaptation. At this level of analysis, the process of adaptation is accomplished through the acquisition, evaluation, and integration of information that is either acquired through experience or research.

    As each individual alleviates the restraints of political identification, they then can begin developing an independent sense of Self that is both adaptable and coherent. Jung spoke of this very process as the process of individuation, wherein an individual cycles, or oscillates through knowledge acquisition and deep contemplation and synthetizing, followed by psychic integration. This process transforms the individual into a stable and independent structure that can think for themselves while remaining open. Consequently, dialogue can reopen in a manner that is both developmental and resolving (Jung, 1956; Neumann, 1954).

    As adaptive dialogue is engaged, resolutions between the ideals of both tradition and progress can emerge. This is not to say that the resolution between these two systems is the simple synthesizing of components found within both, but rather it is to be discovered through creative, oscillatory dialogue that synthesizes those components with novel information.

    In Buddhistic terms, it is not simply the middle way that produces solutions but a developmental dialogue between the two systems in addition to information found outside them such as religion and science that helps manifest the resolution. Only through these means of adaptive dialogue and information integration and synthesis can the collective transcend political and ideological identification and thus produce a resolution that unifies humanity in a coherent fashion. 

    References

    Cauvin, J. (2000). The birth of the gods and the origins of agriculture. Cambridge University Press.

    Donald, M. (1991). Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the evolution of culture and cognition. Harvard University Press.

    Eliade, M. (1981). A history of religious ideas, Volume 1: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. University of Chicago Press.

    Gimbutas, M. (1991). The civilization of the goddess: The world of Old Europe. HarperCollins.

    Jung, C. G. (1956). Symbols of transformation (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1912)

    Kivell, T. L. (2015). Evidence in hand: Recent discoveries and the evolution of human manual manipulation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 370(1682), 20150105. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0105

    Kunze, C., et al. (2024). Early stone tool use and its implications for cognitive and motor development. Journal of Human Evolution, 185, 103523.

    McPherron, S. P., Alemseged, Z., Marean, C. W., et al. (2010). Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature, 466(7308), 857–860. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09248

    Neumann, E. (1954). The origins and history of consciousness. Princeton University Press.

    Schmidt, K. (2010). Göbekli Tepe — the Stone Age sanctuaries: New results of ongoing excavations with a special focus on sculptures and high reliefs. Documenta Praehistorica, 37, 239–256. https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.37.21

    Tattersall, I. (2013). Masters of the planet: The search for our human origins. Palgrave Macmillan.

    Wrangham, R. (2009). Catching fire: How cooking made us human. Basic Books.

  • Debating the Christian God: A Response to Alex O’Connor

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    Public debates about God, suffering, and morality often generate more heat than clarity. This is especially true when critiques of Christianity are made outside the internal logic of the biblical narrative itself.

    Recently, I watched a short exchange in which Alex O’Connor challenges the Christian conception of God—particularly the idea that a good God could permit suffering. Rather than responding with a quick rebuttal or isolated counter-argument, I felt it was worth slowing the discussion down and approaching it more carefully.

    In the video linked below, I offer a structured response organized around three foundational questions:

    The goodness of God The nature of suffering The nature of reality

    My central claim is not that Christianity should be accepted uncritically, but that meaningful critique requires engaging a worldview on its own terms. When arguments are removed from the theological and metaphysical framework they are critiquing, logical coherence often collapses—not because the questions are illegitimate, but because the structure being examined has been misunderstood.

    This response draws from theology, philosophy, psychology, and evolutionary perspectives to clarify where many modern debates about God go astray. It is not intended as a polemic, but as an attempt to restore conceptual coherence to a discussion that is frequently reduced to abstractions or category errors.

    If you’re interested in a more careful examination of these issues, you can watch the full video here:

    I welcome thoughtful engagement and discussion.

  • Precision and Ego Development: The Evolution of High-Resolution Perception

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    “How increasing perceptual precision shaped human cognition, culture, and meaning.”

    Since the emergence of Homo Sapiens onto the global scene approximately 200,000 years ago, precision in details has increased significantly. There is a variety of evidence to support this assumption, beginning with increased complexity in tool making abilities to sophisticated artistic expression to expansive narrative elaboration (Eliade, 1981; Tattersall, 2013). Each of these facets of increased precision are evident in an evolving progressive measure throughout the millennia. Among this evolving progressive trend are rapid “explosions” of creativity that occur. It is these moments that a collective elevation in conscious development appears to have taken place.

    Tool making has increased in design and utility throughout both the Paleolithic and Neolithic period. Like art and architecture, tool making requires attention to details and excellent eye-hand coordination. Though this ability has been around at least since Homo habilis approximately 2.5 million years ago, it has evolved with each subsequent genus. By the time of Homo Sapiens, tool making had evolved from simple tool forms to a complex array of designs tailored for specific uses (Tattersall, 2013).

    Agriculture began during the Neolithic period, and with it a variety of novel implements to help with this revolutionary means of sustenance (Cauvin, 2000). With the emergence of civilization around 5,000 years ago in both Egypt and Sumer, tool making and weapons design witnessed an incredible leap. What is most noticeable about this evolving development is precision and intricacy in design. Compared to the rudimentary forms of prehistoric times, tools at this time not only evolved in complexity, but also in substance with stones being replaced with precious metals such as copper, bronze, and iron.

    Of course, this increased complexity in tool making has only accelerated since then with tools in present time not being restricted in the form of physical applications. We have now designed and built tools that are utilized in digital form to accomplish an ever-greater range of constructive and diagnostic measures. This increase can be narrowed down to an improvement in precision of perception. However, this increase may be bidirectional in that, over time of constructing and using tools, both primitive and modern humans have increasingly developed, not only an exceptional range of skills, but also increased neural activity and eye-hand coordination that has enhanced cognition (Gibson, 1991). With this enhancement came symbolic articulation.

    Creative symbolic expression first appears in the form of decorative beads made of seashells over 100,000 years ago, and later these symbolic expressions expanded into deliberate etchings into rock with the oldest being approximately 77,000 years old from the Blombos caves located in southern Africa (Tattersall, 2013). Symbolic expression then took a dramatic leap in creativity following Homo Sapiens’ exodus from Africa with artwork appearing 68,000 years ago in Indonesia (Oktaviana et al., 2026). This leap in creativity resulted in a collective explosion at the beginning of the Paleolithic period approximately 50,000 years ago.

    At this time, Homo Sapiens created elaborate and intricate designs featuring a variety of prehistoric animals, people, and abstract designs such as discs, wavy lines, and chevrons. Among these designs were also the first figurines that included a wealth of female designs called “Venus” figurines, and a one-off lion-man figurine (Gimbutas, 1989; Kövecses, 2023). However, these Venus figurines were ambiguous in nature, often depicting little to no facial features while possessing a “standard” obese figure, though sometimes they were also depicted in a slender manner. This ambiguity of figurines gradually developed into more elaborate articulations entering into the Neolithic era (Gimbutas, 1989; Cauvin, 2000).

    In conjunction with the increased intricacy of the Venus figurines was the creation of a male counterpart that was symbolized through the bucranium, or bull’s skull. This depiction is found within the emergence of Neolithic culture around 12,000 years ago in the Middle East and later throughout Europe (Cauvin, 2000). Beginning around 7,000 years ago in Romania, a shift occurred wherein the bucranium was replaced by an actual male human figure. It was here that the Venus figurines and the new male figure sat side by side — eventually being separated into their own individual existences (Gimbutas, 1991).

    During the emergence of the Neolithic period, humanity witnessed a shift in perceptual resolution and constructive ability. This shift is first evident 11,600 years ago at Gobeli Tepe located in modern-day Turkey wherein large limestone pillars stand erect in circular design. Each pillar weighs 20-50 tons while standing approximately 3.5 to 7 meters tall. These pillars exhibit carvings of various animals, symbols, and human-like features such as hands, belts, and robes (Schmidt, 2010). The elaboration of design found in the carvings and the structure itself present evidence of a sophisticated development of cognition from that found in the previous period.

    As the Neolithic progressed, so too did the artistic and constructive abilities of the collective. For instance, at a site near Gobekli Tepe that is dated later at around 10,600 called Nevali Cori, there arose rectangular architecture and increased complexity of designs. It was this development in design that symbolizes a more linear, rationalistic manner of perceiving the world that had not been evident prior to. Other places throughout the Middle East like Çatalhöyük, Jericho, and Mureybet all exhibit these same rectangular architecture and intricate artwork (Cauvin, 2000; Hodder, 2007). This trend continued throughout the Neolithic period and later Bronze Age, Copper Age, and Iron Age up until modern times with increased sophistication.

    With these developments of both tool making and symbolic expression came the emergence of written language. It is this revolutionary feat that provided humanity with the means of articulation that had not been available before. Prior to this time, narrative expression through the form of story telling was strictly oral which was transferred from generation to generation. However, this means of articulation has its limitations and is often less precise compared to written form. Thus, writing provided humanity with the ability to develop and articulate narratives with increased precision and coherence.

    From the first written narratives of ancient Sumer and Egypt to those found centuries later in Babylon and Greece, an evolutionary trend of precision and coherence can be observed. However, regarding ancient mythology and religious ideas, the narrative found in both the Old Testament and New Testament provide the most precise and coherent formulation. It is here that humanity reached one of the most internally coherent formulations that still influences us today (Neumann, 1954). From this time, increased focus of human cognition was placed on rationalistic productions that became increasingly evident beginning at the time of the enlightenment.

    The reason for this, as far as one can tell, is due to a collective psychological phenomenon. As human consciousness evolved, it developed greater precision and coherence which equates to a collective ego development. By “collective ego,” I refer not to a literal group mind, but to shared symbolic structures that increasingly differentiate subject, object, and meaning across cultures. Throughout the Paleolithic, ambiguity was a common articulation thus representing an emergence of collective unconscious symbolic representations. Over time, the collective ego developed through trial and error, contentions with climate change, and improvements in living conditions. This development became evident in the increased precision and coherence articulated through tool making, artwork, and developed ideals.

    It is the latter of these that furthered its development through the narratives found throughout the ancient world. Consequently, a unification of the collective psyche resulted. This unification can be found in the latest of these highly integrated articulations — that is the person of Christ. Prior narratives of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Buddhism unified the various facets of the psyche that were represented in the religions of Sumer, Egypt, and Greece. However, within the Western symbolic lineage, Christianity represents one of the most psychologically coherent personifications of ego-Self integration, expressed through narrative rather than abstraction. Through the death and resurrection of the Self, one can become more precise and coherent.

    This framework is presented as a psychological model of transformation rather than a theological claim. It is only by sacrificing the old perceptions through the encountered and acquisition of novel information that the process of precision and coherence can begin. From there, one wrestles with such information in efforts to create coherence in relation to one’s preconceptions. This process is not one of force as to manipulate the information to fit one’s current perceptual model, but rather a means of wrestling with one’s own Self in order to accommodate the novel information that generates increased coherence. Following this encounter and contentious experience, an individual can emerge out of the “tomb” of the unconscious in a resurrection and transformed form.  

    References:

    Cauvin, J. (2000). The birth of the gods and the origins of agriculture. Cambridge University Press.

    Eliade, M. (1981). A history of religious ideas, Volume 1: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. University of Chicago Press.

    Gibson, J. J. (1991). The ecological approach to visual perception. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Gimbutas, M. (1989). The language of the goddess. Harper & Row.

    Gimbutas, M. (1991). The civilization of the goddess. HarperSanFrancisco.

    Hodder, I. (2007). The leopard’s tale: Revealing the mysteries of Çatalhöyük. Thames & Hudson.

    Kövecses, Z. (2023). Meaning-making and the mind: Conceptual metaphor theory in cultural context. Oxford University Press.

    Neumann, E. (1954). The origins and history of consciousness. Princeton University Press.

    Oktaviana, A. A., et al. (2026). Narrative cave art in Indonesia and the emergence of symbolic storytelling. Journal of Archaeological Science.

    Schmidt, K. (2010). Göbekli Tepe – the Stone Age sanctuaries. New Results, New Interpretations. Documenta Praehistorica, 37, 239–256.

    Tattersall, I. (2013). Masters of the planet: The search for our human origins. Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Contending with Death: A Depth Psychological Analysis

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    A Depth Psychological Reflection on Meaning, Death, and Rebirth

    Author’s Note:

    This reflection was written in the aftermath of personal loss. It is not intended as a definitive account, but as a depth-psychological exploration of how death, reflection, and rebirth contribute to the development of meaning and coherence within the psyche.

    Life and death are an inevitable part of being. It is through a relational interaction with the fundamental structure of reality that continuity of experience emerges. With this continuity, we discover meaning through sensory excitation and memory formation. This process allows for meaning to both emerge and form as a reflective process. Not only does this process provide a structure of meaning for experiences during the present and past but also provides sustenance for the future as well. It is here that we utilize the meaning of past experiences to discern the path of potential that lies ahead.

    However, the fundamental essence of meaning is found in death — it is through the termination of an experience that allows for reflection and meaning formation. Without death, reflection — and thus significance — cannot fully mature. Psychologically, this is the death of the ego. Any given experience provides stimulation that is necessary for memory formation through sensory modalities that provide significance; however, the significance provided is premature at the moment of experience itself. Only through the process of death can the significance mature and become fully realized.

    At the core of this process is the concept of rebirth — it is the experience being experienced in the light of reflective engagement. Rebirth is not simply a remembrance or a re-participatory act of the event itself, but rather it is a process of re-examination that provides novel information of both the experience and the self. It is a conscious attempt to discover what has been experienced in relation to the unconscious part of the self. Here, one is not simply investigating the experience in isolation but in relation to previous experiences of both the individual and the collective — the process of individuation.

    Again, this process can only be accomplished through reflective engagement that is relational with the various parts of the self. These various parts of the conscious and unconscious self are often nested in a variety of other experiences that one has had, along with the deeper experiences of the ancestral past that are aggregated into the collective unconscious.

    The initial strata of the unconscious are formed through the individual’s engagement with reality. Over time, memories are aggregated into a structure with significance often being the criteria of differentiation — the more significant an experience the easier it is to abstract out of the unconscious structure. With that said, it is due to this that emphasis is placed on reflective engagement with a given experience in relation to other experiences. It is often through the exercise of remembering an event that another experience emerges within the mind. And if this process is deliberate, the more relational experiences and their elements will emerge.

    This process is also true of the lower strata of the unconscious where the collective experiences reside, though this level of analysis and relational engagement requires more energy to pursue. Even still, if one does manage to conjure up collective knowledge, it is often difficult to integrate with both the conscious and unconscious experiences of the self. Time, energy, and exceptional focus are necessitated to properly integrate this knowledge with the self into a coherent framework.

    Compared to the unconsciousness of the self, the experiences of the collective unconscious manifest themselves in the form of archetypes. These archetypes of primordial images that reflect various parts of the collective human psyche. Each archetype possesses its own personality and history. They are personas of generalized facets of the human experience. For example, the archetype of intuition, or wisdom, is often manifested in the form of the good mother or good father that provides guidance and comfort.

    When integrated properly, these archetypes provide an overarching framework by which elements of the self are organized. These categorical frames provide coherence that allow an individual to stabilize and orient themselves in a more conducive manner in the world. Only through the process of life experiences and the death thereof can the process of reflective engagement be initiated. As time elapses, this reflective engagement with the conscious and unconscious parts of the self, in conjunction with the collective unconscious, reveals the essential elements of conscious coherence. From there, these essential elements along with their primordial archetypal relational representations can be categorized into a functional unit that results in the rebirth of the self.

    Of course, this resulting rebirth of the self is not some mystical experience — though it can very well be experienced in such a manner — rather it is a reorientation of one’s perception accomplished through a reconfiguration of the psyche. No longer can the world be perceived as it did prior to the rebirth as the alignment of psyche processes and elements are reconfigured in a manner that provides new sustenance to future experiences. A new stimulatory engagement emerges that puts to death the old mode of being, and it is with this new engagement that allows for another cycle of life, death, and rebirth to be experienced yet again.

  • Consciousness and Coherence: A Relational Model of Perceptual Alignment with Reality

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    ,

    Adaptive Engagement, Information Integration, and the Formation of Coherent Experience

    What and how one perceives is the direct consequence of conscious awareness in relation to the dimensions of space-time. Perception is influenced by an array of various interacting biological, cognitive and environmental systems and elements. The plethora of hormones, neural activity, and subatomic arrangement help develop a contextual panorama that provides essence to experience. However, how do all of these facets of experience form into a coherent model wherein meaning and experiential sustenance persist? The fundamental relational dynamic between a constrained evolutionary perceptual system and the continuous flow of emerging potential appears to encourage such coherent model formation. This encouragement is informational provision to the one who possesses the model — and it is up to how they utilize this information that dictates how the model develops.   

    Human consciousness is a fundamental perceptual constraint that results from millions of years of adaptive behaviors and thought processes. Over time, this system has stabilized into a coherent structure that provides humans with a pathway of interactive potential. As one engages with the environment, each interaction is an unfolding of coherent potentiality. These unfolding events are a bidirectional relational dynamic between the coherent adapted structure of consciousness and the stable potential of existence. These forces produce both coherence and manifest potential.

    Though humanity has evolved this relational coherence between consciousness and reality, there are variations on the individual level. These variations are predicated upon past generational developmental experiences and the learned experiential scaffolds of the individual. If previous generations engaged at an insignificant level with reality, then the consequential developmental of subsequent generations are that of lower coherence. The same applies on the individual level — less engagement results in lowered coherence. The reverse, however, can be said if the engagement of both previous and present conscious participants is sufficient.

    Sufficient relational engagement is a process of information acquisition followed by either assimilation or accommodation. Which process occurs is determined by the level of relational congruence between the information obtained and the preexisting structure of consciousness. If the information acquired is at least partially congruent with one’s consciousness, then simple assimilation can be proceeded. Contrarily, if the information is largely incongruent with this structure, then a process of accommodation must be engaged.

    Accommodation requires a reconfiguration of the preexisting conscious model in a way that accommodates the novel information without losing its essence. If one chooses to forego this process when novel information is encountered, they then risk increasing incoherence. The reason for this increased risk rather than a more neutralized stagnation of consciousness is that the information is now evident within the structure.

    Even if the individual sought to consciously discard the information, it would only transfer to the unconscious. Since the unconscious is the primitive foundational substrate of consciousness itself, any information that resides within that contradicts the coherence of the latter emergent model of consciousness will only weaken its structure. And the more information of this sort is ignored, the greater the risk of incoherence to the point of delusion occurs.

    Therefore, it is paramount that an individual — and the generations preceding and proceeding from them — do not ignore novel information. With that said, novel information is the interactional sustenance by which consciousness can mature its frame of reference that further enhances the relational dynamic with being. The more one acknowledges and seeks to integrate encountered information into their preexisting model through comprehension and accommodation, the greater the coherence of that model within itself and its relationship with reality.