Introduction
The rise of psychoanalytic theory took place towards the latter part of the 19th century, which was a time when the western world was experiencing rapid, transitional growth from a predominant rural way of life to an urbanized lifestyle that was a result of the second industrial revolution (Benjamin, 2019; Sharma & Singh, 2020). Furthermore, this was also a time wherein shifts from religious institutions had already experienced substantial loss in power due to scientific discoveries such as Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution overtaking the ideological framework by which most people in Europe lived their lives (Leber & Spenninger, 2023). This shift from religious, dogmatic thinking towards a more rational perception of reality rooted in scientific inquiry and discovery helped instigate a further investigation within the workings of the human mind, especially within the context of psychological disorders. The days began to be numbered, at least for the most part, where individuals sought to have demons expelled by a priest in hopes to cure their mental handicap, but rather many began to seek out professional help within the confines of the new emerging field of psychology. Psychoanalytic theory was one such field that sought to help individuals suffering from various psychological detriments by delving deep beyond the confines of their conscious awareness into the depths of the unconscious mind wherein both the fundamental issue and its resolution resided (Benjamin, 2019).
Psychoanalysts perceived the individual in terms of the id, ego, and superego. The id is identified as the more primitive part of the self that is present at birth and that consists of primitive desires and instincts such as aggression and sexual desires. The next level of the self is the ego that develops during childhood and is the part of the self that helps the id satisfy its demands and acts as a mediator between the id and the external world. Finally, the superego is the higher form of the self that is developed throughout childhood and adulthood and is regarded as a “moral compass” that guides the individual towards the fulfillment of actions that help both the individual and those around them. Moreover, the superego seeks to inhibit the ids primitive desires by impressing a type of conscience guilty apprehension upon the overarching conscious structure of the individual. It was through accessing these three components of consciousness that a therapist could disclose the contributing factors that were at play in hopes to resolve the issue at hand (Benjamin, 2019; Sibi, 2020).
Methods by which this feat of psychological disclosure was accomplished included lengthy sessions wherein a client expressed thoughts and feelings through a process known as free association. Another method consisted of a client recalling and explaining their dreams while a therapist would analyze the essence of the dream, a process called dream analysis. It was through these two methods of therapeutic application that a therapist could extricate underlying phenomena that were contributing to a particular psychological ailment which was often termed either neuroses or hysteria. These underlying phenomena were generally due, at least in part, to overwhelming internal and/or environmental factors that were situated within a time expansive framework that included contributing facts contended with in the past, present, and/or future. These factors were thought to overwhelm the three components of an individual’s consciousness; however, the underlying phenomena, or etiology, of a disorder often resided in the more primitive structure of the id. One primary reason for such difficulty in identifying these underlying phenomena is due to the defense mechanisms that individuals create for themselves, most often unconsciously, to protect the more vulnerable phenomena that had been created through experienced traumas and/or stress (Benjamin, 2019). Examples of such defense mechanisms include repression, which is a process of repressing negative experiences, and avoidance wherein an individual avoids certain feelings, thoughts, people, and/or places that make them uncomfortable (Bailey & Pico, 2023).
Lastly, the founder of psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), believed that much of the etiology of disorders originated from an improper process of maturation through the various stages of childhood sexuality, a process termed “the psychosexual theory.” These stages consisted of five developmental progressives that an individual had to mature through to become a unified whole, which included the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. If a stage does not provide adequate fulfillment in a pleasurable manner, then fixation is the result due to the tension and anxiety that results from this lack of fulfillment. Fixation obstructs the progress of the individual to the subsequent stage and thus an impediment of maturation is the result with all of its dysfunctions, including the potential for the later development of hysteria or neuroses. The psychotherapeutic process provided by a psychoanalytic therapist is key in the process of resolution (Lantz et al., 2025).
History of Psychoanalytic Theory
As mentioned previously, psychoanalytic theory had emerged during a time of major transition within both the social and cultural fabric of western civilization, especially that of Europe. Both science and technology were emerging victor over mythology and superstition as more people began to rely on modern and conventional means to help improve their everyday lives, including transportation, communication devices, electricity, and medicine, to name a few. Among these transitory means of improvement was the mental health orientation founded in the emerging field of psychology. Many prominent figures arose at this time that provided innovative approaches in the treatment of psychological disorders, including William James, Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener, and Sigmund Freud. It is the latter of these that helped in the development of psychoanalytic theory, and it is for this reason that he is labeled as the “father” of psychoanalytic theory (Benjamin, 2019).
Early Inspirations
Freud’s journey towards a unified psychoanalytic theory began early on in his years in 1873 when he attended university, and it is here wherein he learned about Darwin’s theory of evolution that influenced his perceptions in a scientific manner. Later in his academic journey, Freud went on to study under Josef Breuer (1842-1925) who treated a young woman named Anna O. who was suffering from hysteria at the time of treatment. Following the death of her father of whom she was exceptionally close to, Anna O. struggled with various psychological and physiological issues such as paralysis, headaches, hallucinations, and multiple personalities, among others. Breuer was able to effectively treat Anna O. through a series of psychotherapy sessions and hypnosis, and afterwards he concluded that the etiology of her experienced symptoms was due to the concealment of emotions. The resolution of her issue was a process he called the catharsis method which was a process of emotional release that helped relieve the tensions that resulted in the experienced symptoms. Freud was intrigued by this case and thus sought to dialogue with Breuer on his experience. It was this case and its resolution that helped Freud go on to develop his psychoanalytic theory. The unconscious etiology of disorders that must be identified and disclosed in order to resolve the dilemma was the basis for his theory, however, along with an underlying sexual theme (Benjamin, 2019).
Following this enlightening encounter with Josef Breuer, Freud received a scholarship to study under a prominent neurologist at the time, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893). It was during this time that Freud learned about the processes of hypnosis and furthered his understanding of hysteria. Moreover, it was due to an influential remark made by Charcot at a party about a client of his that was dealing with hysteria that presented a fixation on genitals that helped Freud’s later theoretical formation of sexual development (Benjamin, 2019).
Major Breakthroughs
According to Martin Tarzian and colleagues (2023), after Freud completed medical school at the University of Vienna, he continued working with his professor, Josef Breuer. Together they published a book titled “Studies in Hysteria” (1895) which focused on the case of Anna O., as well as several other similar cases. From there, Freud went on to develop his theory of the “unconscious” that proposed that many behavioral and emotional states were influenced by underlying repressed memories and desires. This theoretical development of the unconscious provided the grounds for the further details involved within the unconscious and conscious states that included the components of the id, ego, and superego mentioned previously. Moreover, this also helped in the development of methods of treatment such as the free association technique and dream analysis (Benjamin, 2019; Tarzian et al., 2023).
In 1899, Freud went on to emphasize the importance of dream analysis in his published work titled “The Interpretation of Dreams.” In this work, Freud elaborated on how dreams were a means by which people addressed their unconscious wishes, and thus by analyzing hidden details within a recalled dream from a client one could help interpret what these unconscious wishes were. From there, the therapists could help the client determine whether these wishes were a prospective potential endeavor or something that was nested within some earlier traumatic experience that needed to be resolved (Tarzian et al., 2023).
One of the final milestone events to be considered includes the instantiation of psychoanalytic concepts within the fabric of American university and culture, and the metamorphosis of psychoanalytic concepts into independent, novel theories. First, the instantiation of psychoanalytic concepts within the fabric of American universities and culture has no better inception than that of the event of the 20th anniversary of Clark University wherein Freud did a series of lectures on psychoanalytic theory alongside his companion at the time, Carl Jung. Although this event at the time did not immediately make a substantial impact, the aftereffects that occurred in the following decades did. Next, several students of Freud diverted from his original psychoanalytic theory to go on to produce their own, albeit, not without controversy. Freud excommunicated these novel thinkers which included the likes of Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney. All of which went on to not only successfully produce theories of their own that were derived from Freud’s theory, but to propagate them as well (Benjamin, 2019).
The Effects of other Psychological Schools of Thought
Since psychoanalytic theory was such an early development, other psychological schools of thoughts were sparse in their potential for impacting Freud in the initial process of formation. Albeit there are two schools of thought that do have their impact that must be considered: one of which is a former impact, and the other is situated on the latter side of the time spectrum. First, the work of Freud’s professor, Josef Breuer, was quite influential in the development of multiple features of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, including the unconscious, the tripartite theory of the psyche, defense mechanisms, and the methods of free association and dream analysis, among others. These concepts of psychoanalytic theory Freud developed through his dialogues with and teachings of Breuer, as well as his working alongside him on multiple occasions. As mentioned previously, some of these ideas are derived from the multiple cases of hysteria that Breuer had the privilege of contending with and treating in his years prior to working with Freud (Benjamin, 2019; Tarzian et al., 2023).
Next, the school of thought of that of behaviorism that took over much of the psychological perception both academically and clinically influenced first and foremost by the works of John Watson in the 1910s and 1920s. From there, behaviorism expanded its influence and power as the dominate force of a true science of psychology. This overarching influence overshadowed psychoanalytic theory and several other cognitively oriented schools of thought as insufficient and fantastical in their analysis of human behavior. The result caused a dampening of cognitive psychological approaches for several decades before their revival in the 1960s and 1970s due to behaviorisms strict ideological approach and its inability to adequately address several mental and behavioral issues that required a more cognitively oriented approach (Benjamin, 2019).
Cultural Influences in the Development of Psychoanalytic Theory
The two predominant cultural influences that had the greatest influence on the development of psychoanalytic theory include the decreased influence of religion, and Darwin’s theory of evolution. The decreased influence of religion was a prominent feature of the 19th century Europe wherein scientific oriented thinking began to have its predominance over western society (Leber & Spenninger, 2023). Religious superstitions were on the decline and the reliance on conventional methods of medicine and therapy increased. This decline in religiosity and increase in conventional approaches along with increases in scientific theoretical formation and discoveries, such as Darwin’s evolutionary theory, were, at least in part, a driving force behind Freud’s development of psychoanalytic theory (Benjamin, 2019; Marcaggi & Guénolé, 2018). Culture and society needed answers to the problems that had inflicted the human mind for centuries, if not longer, with the only help available prior to being that of primitive measures founded within religious ideology (Benjamin, 2019). Freud sought to understand the working of the human mind apart from the religious framework that dominated European culture prior to, and with this understanding he formulated a coherent theory (at least within the context of his time and the confines of the help it provided people at that time) (Mistry et al., 2024).
Freud’s comprehensive and coherent theorical framework was further driven by the concepts embedded within Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Darwin’s theory had a profound influence on Freud, and it was his first course in university entitled “General Biology and Darwinism” that further enhanced his interest. This influence is quite evident in Freud’s theory in a variety of ways. For example, Freud transformed his belief of hysteria being a consequence of psychotraumatic etiology, and rather he came to believe it was an evolutionary phenomenon that were nested in formerly functional instinctive behaviors (Marcaggi & Guénolé, 2018). Another example involves the tripartite theory of the id, ego, and superego. First, the id is represented as the primitive instincts that founded in the earliest of the human evolutionary pathway (Lapsley & Ste, 2012). Next, according to Tedosio Giacolini and Ugo Sabatello (2019), the evolutionary insistence for self-preservation can be found in the concept of the ego which seeks to maintain the constancy of the self, a term he later called the ego instincts. There are other facets of evolutionary theory that are implicit within the theoretical framework of psychoanalytic theory, including the sexual development and neuroses, aggression, motivation, and death instincts, among others (Giacolini & Sabatello, 2019).
Application of Psychanalysis to a Supervisorial Role
Multiple facets of psychoanalytic theory are still relevant today and can be applied to a variety of settings including managerial/supervisorial roles. Corporations or any large enterprise are complex dynamic systems that can readily become dysfunctional through various means of dysfunctionalities, including communication, adherence, and task-ability compatibility. According to Gilles Arnaud (2012), these dysfunctional proclivities of corporations predominantly are initiated and are resolved at the managerial/supervisorial position within the corporate hierarchy, and it is at this level that a psychoanalytic approach can be incorporated to help resolve these dysfunctional proclivities. This resourceful nature of psychoanalysis can be applied in a variety of ways; however, two will be acknowledged here.
First, the application of the psychoanalytic approach in identifying counterproductive behaviors at the supervisorial position such as compulsive or depressed behaviors has been proven quite successful (Arnaud, 2012). This has been accomplished by applying psychoanalytic therapy that focuses on the unconscious attributes of a manager to disclose and resolve any underlying neurotic behavior that contributes to said counterproductive behaviors (Vries & Miller, 1984). Next, according to Nazarova Yendigul (2025), the psychoanalytic process of self-reflection can also be used to help managers identify their own counterproductive behaviors and thus seek to resolve them through the regulatory and adaptive features of the ego as it integrates and balances information and desires embedded in both the id and superego. Furthermore, managers can also use this technique to improve their emotional intelligence, or empathy, to better connect and communicate with their employees, which can also help managers develop a diverse and more inclusive mindset and thus improve the overall functionality of the enterprise they are managing (Yendigul, 2025).
Conclusion
Psychoanalytic theory has provided an impactful historic account of the human mind. However, what of its future? With the rise of technological innovations wherein the brain can be analyzed, such as fMRI and PET scans, as it encounters techniques derived from psychoanalysis, evidence for such concepts as the unconscious and the tripartite nature of the self may arise, and with this evidence, a furthered advancement in not only contending with psychopathology but with human flourishing as well (Peters et al., 2017; Tsikandilakis et al., 2019). The evolution of the therapeutic application of psychoanalytic theory through the improvements in the comprehensive link between the tangible characteristics of the brain and body and the theoretical concepts nested in psychoanalytic theory can impact society on every level of analysis, beginning with the individual all the way up to the parliament and so on. For instance, the identification of maladaptive thoughts and behaviors that emerge from the unconscious can be transformed into productive qualities of the individual that helps unify them in a manner that is conducive to their overarching goals that also contributes in a way that is conducive to the overall functionality and flourishment of society. The devastating effects of the increase in psychological disorders demands, more than ever before (Wu et al., 2023), a comprehensive therapeutic approach that is capable of delving deep into one’s being and drawing out and resolving the maladaptive thoughts and behaviors, which could demand could be fulfilled by a novel revival of psychoanalytic theory that, even as stubborn as he was, Freud would appreciate and commend.
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Michael Thacker 